Neuroscience
Permanent URI for this collectionhttps://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12503/21691
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Browsing Neuroscience by Author "Cunningham, Rebecca"
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Item Androgen Receptors in the Middle Aged Male Rat Brain: Influence of Testosterone Deprivation on Expression(2017-03-14) Contreras, Jo; Cunningham, Rebecca; Fort*, Callie; Cuellar*, Elric; Lopez, Gladys; Metzger, Daniel; Oppong-Gyebi, Anthony; Schreihofer, Derek; Smith, Charity B.S.Purpose: 1) To determine whether long-term testosterone deprivation (LTTD) alters the levels and/or distribution of androgen receptors in the middle-aged male rat brain and 2) to determine whether testosterone replacement after LTTD influences androgen receptor levels. Methods: Twelve-month old male Fischer 344 rats were left intact or castrated for 2 weeks and replaced with subcutaneous implants containing testosterone (STTD). Additional groups were castrated for 10 weeks before being treated with testosterone (LTTD+T) or cholesterol (LTTD). Four weeks later, rats were euthanized and brains were collected for immunoblotting and immunohistochemistry (IHC) for androgen receptors (AR) using antibodies targeting the N-terminus or C-terminus of the protein. The cerebral cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus were examined, and testes were used as positive control tissue. Results: Contrary to expectations, the full-length AR (116 kDa) was barely detectable in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex by immunoblotting with antibodies directed to either end of the AR. Rather, smaller fragments were readily detected. Examination of the size of these fragments (~30, 37, 50, and 80 kDa) and consultation of the literature for the human AR, suggested that they represented calpain-dependent cleavage fragments. A series of control experiments was performed in an attempt to extract the full-length AR using rat testes as a positive control tissue. Protease inhibitors, EDTA, and the AR agonist dihydrotestosterone failed to reduce the appearance of fragments. Interestingly, the pattern of fragments from the hippocampus (80 [greater than] 37 kDa) differed from that from the cortex (37 [greater than] 80 kDa) suggesting differential processing. IHC of coronal brain sections though the forebrain revealed nuclear AR staining consistent with full-length AR in regions of high expression, including the hypothalamus. In agreement with immunoblotting AR staining in the cortex and hippocampus appeared to be cytoplasmic, rather than nuclear. No significant differences were observed between treatment groups. Conclusions: These data suggest that AR protein in some areas of the middle-aged male rat brain is rapidly degraded into fragments with altered localization and potential for transcriptional activity and/or signaling functions. Although no differences in expression were apparent between treatment groups, the differential processing of AR in the rat brain is a novel finding warranting further investigation.Item Influence of Testosterone Deprivation and Replacement on Cognition and Oxidative Stress in Middle-Aged Male Rats(2017-03-14) Contreras, Jo; Metzger, Daniel; Oppong-Gyebi, Anthony; Kasanga, Ella; Vann, Philip; Sumien, Nathalie; Cunningham, Rebecca; Schreihofer, Derek; Smith, Charity B.S.Purpose: Data from aged men suggests a negative correlation between testosterone levels and cognitive function, including the development of mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease. The purpose of this study was to 1) determine whether long-term testosterone deprivation (LTTD) impairs cognition and increases oxidative stress in the middle-aged male rat brain and 2) determine whether testosterone (T) replacement after LTTD can reverse these effects. Methods: Twelve-month old male Fischer 344 rats (13 per group) were left intact or castrated for 2 weeks and replaced with subcutaneous implants containing T (short-term T deprivation; STTD). Additional groups were castrated for 10 weeks before being treated with T (long-term T deprivation; LTTD+T) or cholesterol (LTTD). Rats underwent cognitive testing with the Morris water maze (MWM). A 4-day acquisition phase was used for rats to learn the location of a hidden platform. A retention day was used to determine whether rats remembered the platform location after it was removed. A 2-day reversal trial in which the platform was moved to a new location was used to examine mental flexibility. These tests require both hippocampal and cortical areas of the brain. Following MWM rats were euthanized and brains were collected for immunoblotting for markers of cell death (Spectrin) and oxidative stress responses (NFkB, COX2, NOX2) in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex. Plasma advanced oxidative protein products (AOPP) were used as a peripheral marker of oxidative stress. Total testosterone was measured by ELISA. Results: Castration reduced total testosterone to 40% of intact levels whereas testosterone implants increased levels back to those of intact males. Overall, intact rats performed significantly worse on the MWM than STTD and LTTD with or without T replacement. We saw no significant changes in blood AOPP among treatment groups. Similarly, there were no significant differences in the expression of oxidative stress regulated genes or Spectrin cleavage in the hippocampus. Cortical measurements are on-going. Conclusions: These data suggest that castration with or without T replacement improves cognitive function in middle-aged rats, but does not significantly alter oxidative stress in the brain or periphery. These data support the safety profile of testosterone replacement to physiological levels and do not recapitulate correlative data observed in men.Item Mild CIH Does Not Induce Cell Loss in the Substantia Nigra(2017-03-14) Snyder, Brina; Cunningham, Rebecca; Davis, WilliamPurpose: Sleep apnea severity has been associated with Parkinson’s disease (PD) severity in men. Chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH) is an animal model for sleep apnea. Mild CIH increases oxidative stress (OS) and inflammation in substantia nigral dopamine neurons, a neuron type lost in PD. Currently there is no model for early stage PD, wherein cell loss is not evident. Clinical symptoms of PD are not observed until about 80% of the substantia nigra (SN) is lost. It is unknown what causes PD, nor is there a cure for PD. The purpose of this study was to determine if CIH impacted neuronal viability in the SN in order to establish an early stage PD model. Methods: Gonadally intact male Sprague Dawley rats were exposed to either room air (normoxia) or six-minute chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH) cycles, during which oxygen levels were rapidly decreased from 21% to 10% then returned to normal room air levels, eight hours a day during the light phase for seven days. Animals were perfused and brain tissue containing the SN was prepared for 8-OhDg (OS damage marker) and DAPI (cell nuclear marker) immunohistochemical staining. Afterwards, tissue sections were mounted and imaged to analyze the specific effects of CIH on OS damage, cell nuclear size, and cell number. Specifically, 8-OhDg and DAPI expression within the SN were summed and averaged across multiple sections of the SN. Comparisons were made between normoxia and CIH groups. In addition to OS damage and cell number, cell nuclear sizes were quantified and averaged across sections. 8-OhDg and DAPI staining were visualized using a digital camera on fluorescent microscope. Results: CIH increased OS, as shown by increased 8-OhDg expression, in the SN compared to normoxia. No significant differences in cell number or cell nuclear size were found between CIH and normoxia. Conclusions: This is the first study to show that mild CIH does not alter SN cell number or nuclear size, even though CIH increases OS damage in cells. These results support the use of CIH as an early stage animal model for PD. Data generated from this model aid in the understanding of the PD and its pathophysiology.Item NADPH Oxidase (NOX1) Mediates Testosterone-Induced Neurodegeneration (2017)(2017-03-14) Cunningham, Rebecca; Tenkorang, MavisPurpose: One of the primary characteristics of Parkinson’s disease (PD) is oxidative stress (OS). Men have a higher risk for PD than women. Testosterone, a primary male sex hormone has been implicated in PD, and is a known oxidative stressor. Previous studies in our lab have shown that testosterone exacerbates OS damage in dopaminergic neurons. However, the mechanism by which testosterone increases OS is unknown. We hypothesize that in dopaminergic cells, testosterone increases OS by activating NOX 1, a major OS generator in cells. Methods: To test our hypothesis, we used a dopaminergic cell line (N27 cells). For an oxidative stressor, we used tert-butyl-hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to induce 20% cell loss prior to testosterone (100nm) administration. NOX1 inhibitors (Apocynin, Diphenyleneiodonium-DPI) were administered before H2O2 exposure. Cell viability was quantified using the MTT assay. Results: Testosterone is only damaging in the presence of OS. DPI, alone, was damaging to N27 cells, hence this was no longer used as a NOX1 inhbitor. Unlike DPI, Apocynin had no effect on cell viability. Further, Apocynin did not alter H2O2-induced cell loss, indicating that H2O2 increases OS via a non-NOX1 mechanism. However, Apocynin blocked testosterone’s damaging effects in an oxidative stress environment. Conclusions: Testosterone-induced cell loss is mediated by NOX1, indicating that NOX1 is involved in testosterone induced OS generation. By understanding testosterone’s mechanism of action, potential therapeutic targets for Parkinson’s disease can be explored.